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Plant Cell and Animal Cell

animalandplantcells-110913101915-phpapp02.ppt

ORAL : PRETESTING, DIAGNOSTIC QUESTIONS

The Questions & Answers

  Definition

Questions:

·         are posed by the teacher to determine if students understand what is being/has been presented or to extend thinking, generate ideas or problem-solve.

Answers:

·         provide opportunities for oral assessment when the student responds to a question by speaking rather than by writing.

       Purpose

Questions and answers are used to:

·         provide a mechanism which monitors a student’s understanding while assessing student progress (what they know and can do);

·         gather information about a student’s learning needs.

      Characteristics

Question and answers:

·         help teachers and students clarify their purpose for learning and link previous information with new understandings.

    

      Teacher’s Role

The teacher:

·         notes how students answer questions during instruction to know if the students understand what is being presented or are able to perform skills;

·         should ensure that all students participate, not just those individuals who typically respond with answers.

  

   Considerations

Questions and answers:

·         can help to ensure that all students are involved if tracking is done to ensure that all students participate;

·         is used with consideration that some individuals are not comfortable or fluent expressing themselves orally.

OBSERVATION TOOL STRATEGY

THE OBSERVATIONAL STRATEGY

•               Observation    is a process of systematically viewing and recording student behavior for the purpose of making programming decisions;    

permeates the entire teaching process by assisting the teacher in making the decisions required in effective teaching.

PURPOSE

·         provides systematic, ongoing information about students in relation to areas of strengths and weaknesses, preferred learning styles, unique interests, learning needs, skills, attitudes, behavior, and performance related expectations.

          

        CHARACTERISITICS 

·         can be used every day to assess students of different ages, across subject areas, and in different settings (alone, in partners, small groups or whole class)

·         Is structured with a clear purpose and focus;

·         Include a written record which should be as close to the time of the event as possible. The record should be objective.

        

                          TEACHER's ROLE

            The teacher:

·         Watches students respond to questions, study, complete assigned tasks:

·         Listens to students as they speak and discuss with others;

·         Observes nonverbal forms of communication ( e.g., attentiveness to lessons, signs and frustration):

·         Outlines the purpose of the observation by using the following questions as guidelines:

Who will make the observation?

Who or what is observed?

Why will the observation take place?

When will the observation take place?

When will the observation occur?

How will the observation be recorded (notes, audio and videotape)?

·         Observes the students in a variety of situations and settings;

·         Draws inferences on the basis of the observation gathered;

·         Observes the students performance, then records observation on recording devices (checklist, rating, anecdotal record) which outline the framework and criteria for observation.

CONSIDERATION

           

·         Are made using a checklist, a set of questions, and or a journal as a guide to ensure focused systematic observation.

·         Are often the only assessment tool used for demonstration (e.g, oral speaking, drawing, playing musical instruments, applying motor skills in the physical education program, using equipment in design and Technology);

·         Can be collected by audio tape or videotape 9allows the teacher more detailed assessment of the performance after the fact):

·         Can limit students ability to act naturally if audio tape or videotape is used:

·         Can be influenced by bias in the interpretation of an observation;

·         Can be considered subjective, where the meaning of the observation is derived only by the professional judgment of what is observed;

CURRICULUM EVALUATION

• Curriculum evaluation is the process of obtaining information for judging the worth of an educational program, product, procedure educational objectives or the potential utility of alternative approaches designed to attain specified objectives (glass and worthem, 1997)
•  Curriculum evaluation focuses on determine whether the curriculum as recorded in the master plan has been carried out in the classroom in evaluation a curriculum, the following key question are usually asked:

1. Are the objectives being addressed?
2.  Are the contents presented in the recommended sequence?
3.  Are students being involved in the suggested instructional experience?
4.   Are students reacting to the contents?

• Formative and Summative Evaluation

            Summative evaluation is evaluation that takes place at the end of unit or section of instruction. Summative and formative evaluation can be contracted like this: summative evaluation takes place at the end of a lesson or project and tells the evaluator what is happening. Summative evaluation “sums up” the learning. It is after-the-fact, like end-of the-year testing .

          Formative evaluation is ongoing and yields information that can be used to modify the program prior to termination. (Howell and Nolet 2000)

GOODLOD MODEL

•  John Goodlad’s model deviates a bit from the Ralph Tyler’s model. It is particularly unique in its use of social values. 
•  Goodlad proposes they should be used as data sources. Hence, Goodlad proposes four data sources:

1. Values,
2.  Funded knowledge
3. Conventional wisdom
4.  students needs and interests.

• Funded knowledge is that knowledge which is gained from research. Generally, Research is heavily funded by various organizations. Information from research should be used to inform educational practice in all aspects and hence in curriculum design.
• Conventional wisdom includes specialized knowledge within the society, for example from experts in various walks of life and ‘older’ wise persons.
• Students’ needs and interests should also be taken into consideration in the design process.

Data from the various sources is then used to develop general aims of education, from which General Educational objectives are derived. These objectives should be stated in behavioural terms. A behavioural objective has two components:

1.  a behavioural element 
2. a substantive element. 

• Behavioural element refers to the ‘action’ that a learner should be able to perform,
•  the substantive element represents the ‘content’ or “substance” of the behaviour
• From the general objectives, the curriculum designer identifies learning opportunities that will facilitate the achievement of the general objectives. This could, for example, be specific courses of study.
• The next step involves deriving specific educational objectives, stated behaviourally. These are now akin to instructional objectives. They are used to identify“organizing centers”; which are specific learning opportunities. For example, a specific topic, a field trip, an experiment, etc.
• Regarding evaluation, Goodlad proposed continuous evaluation at all stages of the design process. 

NICHOLLS AND NICHOLLS -1972 MODEL

• Audrey and Howard Nicholls, his book "Developing a Curriculum : A Practical Guide"(1978)devised a straight forward cyclical approach that covered the elements of curriculum briefly but succinctly.
• This model is like a map for particular teaching and learning process.
• It is a cyclical model (rational Model and Dynamic model in middle of it this model stands.
• It is logical sequential model 
• elements of curriculum are interdependent in this model

STEPS:

1. Situational analysis
2. Formation of Objectives
3. Selection and Organisation of Content
4. Selection and Organisation of Method
5. Evaluation

ADVANTAGES

1. Logical sequqntial organization
2. Situational Analusis is in first step
3. it is Flexible model

DISADVANTAGES

1. Time Consuming , as situational analysis is long time process
2. difficult to maintain logical sequential analysis.